As is well known, certain adjectives are gradable; that is, the properties referred to by the adjectives characterize entities that can exhibit those properties to a greater or lesser extent or degree. In what follows, we refer to the gradable properties as dimensions and to the adjectives expressing them as dimension adjectives. Dimension adjectives can be modified, with the resulting expression corresponding to some point on a scale. The scale represents the dimension, and the modifier specifies the point.
Note: The following discussion focuses on adjectives, but extends in a straightforward way to gradable adverbs.( (ADJP (ADV barely / hardly / unusually / unexpectedly / very) (ADJ warm)))
The degree to which an entity exhibits a dimension may be correlated with some other property. In particular, the correlating property might hold beyond (above or below) a certain threshold point for its dimension. This type of correlation is highlighted by a type of modifier that we will call a degree head; we will refer to the phrase expressing the correlating property as the degree complement. Our annotation treats degree heads as heads of modifiers on a par with other modifiers of dimension adjectives. They are tagged as ordinary adverbs (ADV) if they end in -ly and as comparative adverbs (ADVR) otherwise; in both cases, they project ADVP if necessary. Even though the degree complement depends on the degree head (not on the dimension adjective), the annotation represents all three expressions as sisters.
( (ADJP (ADV overly / sufficiently) ← degree head (ADJ warm) ← dimension adjective (PP (P for) ← degree complement (NP (N comfort))))) ( (ADJP (ADVR so) (ADJ warm) (CP-DEG (C that / 0) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we)) (BED were) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ uncomfortable)))))) ( (ADJP (ADVR too) (ADJ hot) (PP (P for) (NP (N comfort))))) ( (ADJP (ADVR too) (ADJ hot) (IP-INF-DEG (TO to) (BE be) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ comfortable))))) ( (ADJP (ADVR too) (ADJ hot) (IP-INF-DEG (FOR for) (NP-SBJ (PRO us)) (TO to) (BE be) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ comfortable))))) ( (ADJP (ADVR too) (ADJ hot) (CP-EOP (WNP-1 0) (IP-INF (NP-OB1 *T*-1) (TO to) (VB drink)))))
The degree complement may be absent in the syntax.
( (ADJP (ADV overly / sufficiently) ← degree head (ADJ warm))) ← dimension adjective ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO It@)) (BEP @'s) (ADJP-PRD (ADVR so) ← degree head (ADJ warm)) ← dimension adjective (PUNC .)))
In connection with the degree head SO, the dimension adjective can
be absent in the syntax. In these cases, SO is tagged as P
rather than ADVR. See SO AS (THAT),
SO AS TO for examples and SO (THAT)
for related discussion.
Degree modifiers may themselves may be modified. By convention,
extraposition from positions not available in the surface syntax is not
annotated.
So far, we have discussed qualitative degree modifiers. A subset of
dimension adjectives, given below, additionally allows quantitative, or
measure, modification.
This type of modification corresponds to the everyday procedure of
measuring some length using a ruler. The extent to which an entity
exhibits the dimension under discussion is defined in terms of an
interval bounded by two endpoints associated with the entity. The
interval is mapped onto an interval on the scale associated with the
dimension (the ruler). The scale in question has properties that go
beyond scales associated with qualitative modification. In particular,
it has an origin or zero point, and it is divided into equal units. In
other words, the scale is isomorphic to the natural numbers. The zero
point on the scale is aligned with one of the endpoints on the entity,
and the point on the scale corresponding to the other endpoint on the
entity yields a numerical measure of the degree to which the entity
exhibits the dimension. The following expressions spell out the various
parameters just introduced, apart from the zero point on the scale,
which is constant and hence never expressed.
The interval between the endpoints can be further described (say, in
terms of its properties as a path).
In ordinary usage, various parameters, including the dimension itself, are
often not overtly expressed. In order to clarify the structure, silent heads of
measure phrases and silent dimension adjectives may be added to the annotation.
Implicit endpoints on the entity are not annotated, however.
Dimensions can also be expressed by nominal heads. In such cases,
the entire construction is annotated as a noun phrase, with a dash tag
appropriate to the syntactic context. The syntactic head of the entire
NP construction is not usually the dimension noun.
The integration of scalar constructions into larger constituents
follows general principles.
Modification of modifiers
( (ADJP (ADVP (Q all) (ADVR too))
(ADJ hot)))
( (ADJP (ADVP (QP (ADV very) (Q much))
(ADVR too))
(ADJ hot)))
( (ADJP (ADVP (ADV barely) (ADV sufficiently))
(ADJ hot)))
( (NP (ADJP (ADV barely)
(ADJR enough))))
( (ADJP (ADV barely)
(ADJ hot)
(ADVP (ADVR enough)))) ← like this
( (ADJP (ADVP (ADV barely)
(ADVP *ICH*-1))
(ADJ hot)
(ADVP-1 (ADVR enough)))) ← not like this
( (ADJP (ADV-1 barely)
(ADJ hot)
(ADVP (ADV *ICH-1)
(ADVR enough)))) ← not like this
Measure modification
Spatial: DEEP, DISTANT, FAR, HIGH, LONG, TALL, WIDE
Temporal: EARLY, LATE, OLD
Other: WORTH
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three) ← second endpoint on scale
(NS feet)) ← unit of measurement
(ADJ wide) ← dimension adjective
(PP (P from)
(NP (D the) ← first endpoint on entity
(ADJ left)
(N edge)))
(PP (P to)
(NP (D the) ← second endpoint on entity
(ADJ right)))))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three) ← second endpoint on scale
(NS years)) ← unit of measurement
(ADJ old) ← dimension adjective
(PP (P from)
(NP (N birth))) ← first endpoint on entity
(PP (P to)
(NP (D the) ← second endpoint on entity
(ADJ present)
(N moment))))))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM twenty) ← second endpoint on scale
(NS miles)) ← unit of measurement
(ADJ distant) ← dimension adjective
(PP (P from)
(NP (D the) ← first endpoint on entity
(N center)
(PP (P of)
(NP (N town)))))
(PP (P to)
(ADVP (ADV here))) ← second endpoint on entity
(PP (P by) ← path descriptor
(NP (ADJ winding)
(NS roads)))))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM thirty-six) ← second endpoint on scale
(NS inches)) ← unit of measurement
(ADJ long) ← dimension
(PP (P in) ← path descriptor
(NP (N circumference)))))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three)
(NS feet))
(ADJ 0) ← implicit dimension (WIDE)
(PP (P from) ← implicit second endpoint on entity
(NP (D the)
(ADJ left)
(N edge)))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three)
(NS feet))
(ADJ 0) ← implicit dimension (HIGH)
(PP (P to) ← implicit first endpoint on entity
(NP (D the)
(N top)))))
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three)
(NS years))
(ADJ old) ← implicit first and second endpoints
( (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM three)
(NS months))
(ADJ 0) ← implicit dimension (OLD)
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
(ADVP-TMP (ADV just))
(VBD turned)
(ADJP-PRD (NP-MSR (NUM three)
(NS 0)) ← implicit unit (YEARS)
(ADJ 0))) ← implicit dimension (OLD)
(PUNC .)))
Dimension noun
( (NP (NUM thirty-six)
(NS years) ← head of NP =/= dimension head
(PP (P of)
(NP (N age))))) ← dimension (OLD) expressed, but not as ADJ
( (PP (P from)
(NP (NUM thirty-six)
(NS years)
(PP (P of)
(NP (N age))))))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO It))
(BEP is)
(NP-PRD (NUM thirty-six)
(NS inches) ← head of NP =/= dimension head
(PP (P in)
(NP (N length)))) ← dimension (LONG) expressed, but not as ADJ
(PUNC .)))
( (NP (D a)
(N child)
(ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM eight) ← postnominal ADJP
(NS years))
(ADJ old))))) ← head of dimension construction = ADJ
( (NP (D a)
(N child)
(PP (P of) ← postnominal PP
(ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM eight)
(NS years))
(ADJ old))))) ← head of dimension construction = ADJ
( (NP (D a)
(N child)
(PP (P of)
(ADJP (NP-MSR (NUM eight)
(NS 0))
(ADJ 0)))))
( (NP (D a)
(N child)
(RRC (NP-PRD (NUM eight) ← postnominal NP
(NS years) ← head of dimension construction = NS
(PP (P of)
(NP (N age)))))))
Comparative constructions
Comparative constructions are similar to degree constructions. Instead
of a pure degree head associated with a degree complement, they contain
a comparative degree head associated with a standard of comparison.
Comparative clauses (CP-CMP)
are Wh- CP. The wh- antecedent is
silent; its syntactic category is generally the wh- phrase counterpart
to the syntactic category of the dimension of comparison (but see below
for comparative subdeletion).
( (ADJP (QR more) ← degree head
(ADJ dangerous) ← dimension of comparison
(CP-CMP (WADJP-1 0) ← complement of degree head
(C than)
(IP-SUB (ADJP-PRD *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (D a) (N rattlesnake))
(BEP is)))))
( (NP (QP (ADVR as) ← degree head
(Q many) ← dimension of comparison
(NS cookies)
(CP-CMP (WNP-1 0) ← complement of degree head
(C as)
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VBD baked)))))
In synthetic comparatives, the degree head and the dimension of comparison are expressed in a single word.
( (ADJP (ADJR taller) ← degree head + dimension of comparison
(CP-CMP (WADJP-1 0) ← complement of degree head
(C than)
(IP-SUB (ADJP-PRD *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(BEP are)))))
( (ADVP (ADVR faster) ← degree head + dimension of comparison
(CP-CMP (WADVP-1 0) ← complement of degree head
(C than)
(IP-SUB (ADVP *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (PRO they))
(MD could)
(VB run)))))
( (NP (QR more) ← degree head + dimension of comparison
(NS cookies)
(CP-CMP (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← complement of degree head
(C than)
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VBD baked))))
As with degree constructions, the complement of the comparative degree head can be silent in the syntax.
( (NP (QR more) (NS cookies) ( (ADJP (QR more) (ADJ important))) ( (ADVP (ADVR faster)))
As expected, the degree head can be modified. Any modifiers of AS are generally not set off with AS as a pharse.
( (ADJP (QP (Q much) (QR more))
(ADJ dangerous)))
( (ADJP (QP (NP-MSR (Q many) (NS times))
(QR more))
(ADJ dangerous)))
( (ADJP (ADV equally) ← no ADVP around EQUALLY AS
(ADVR as)
(ADJ important)))
Comparative structures may themselves function as modifiers.
( (ADVP-LOC (NP-MSR (ADJR further))
(ADV away)
(PP (P from)
(NP (D the)
(N house)))))
( (ADVP-LOC (NP-MSR (ADJP (FP even)
(ADJR further)))
(ADV away)
(PP (P from)
(NP (D the)
(N house)))))
( (ADVP-LOC (NP-MSR (ADJP (NP-MSR (NUMP (NUM five))
(NS miles))
(ADJR further)))
(ADV away)
(PP (P from)
(NP (D the)
(N house)))))
( (NP (ADJP (QP (NP-MSR (NUMP (NUM five))
(NS times))
(QR more))
(ADJ serious))
(NS problems)
(CP-CMP (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(IP-SUB (NP-OB1 *T*-1)
(NP-SBJ (PRO they))
(HVD had)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV ever))
(VBN encountered)))))