Suffixes |
Kashaya Grammar |
This list gives basic definitions of the suffixes in Kashaya verbs and some nouns, especially kinship terms. See the page on suffix forms to get more details about different pronunciations of verb suffixes depending on the context.
-· (-·) adv-suff Locative: in, at, to a place
-·sʼe (-·sʼe) n-kin-suff 1st person
-a (-a) v-suff Factual Evidential: used for imperfective or uncompleted actions being watched by the speaker and also for facts or general truths which are known by everybody to be so, whether or not the action has actually been seen by the speaker
-ad (-ad) 1) v-suff Directional: along 2) v-suff Directional: toward here (in imperatives)
-ad (-ad) v-suff Durative: frequently translated with a progressive in English, or with the phrase keep on doing
-adad (-adad) 1) v-suff Locomotory (with non-motion verb): the Agent, while performing the action of the verb, is moving from one place to another, or is intermittently doing so; duplicate use indicates that the movement is definitely intermittent 2) v-suff Locomotory (with motion verb): intermittent movement; duplicant use intensifies this meaning, i.e. it is more intermittent or continues a longer distance 3) v-suff Locomotory (with change of state verb): indicates a steady or gradual change, with no movement implied
-aduc (-aduc) v-suff Directional: at a distance, away to a distance, from a distance (in space or time)
-ahmucʼ (-ahmucʼ) v-suff Plural Agent + Distributive + along
-ala (-ala) 1) v-suff Directional: away (neither toward or from here) 2) v-suff Inceptive: begin an involuntary act
-alamecʼ (-alamecʼ) v-suff Directional + Reflexive: down off of, down out of
-aloq (-aloq) v-suff Directional: up toward here
-aloqocʼ (-aloqocʼ) v-suff Directional + Reflexive: up and out of (no meaning of hither)
-am (-am) 1) v-suff become what the root noun denotes 2) v-suff become what the root adjective denotes
-anʔwad (-anʔwad) v-suff here and there
-aqʷ (-aqʷ) 1) v-suff Directional: out toward here 2) v-suff Directional: north or west toward here; from the south or east
-aq (-aq) 1) v-suff Directional: out from here 2) v-suff Directional: north or west from here
-aq (-aq) 1) v-suff address by this kinship term 2) v-suff acknowledge this kinship relation 3) v-suff come to the state indicated by the root
-aqac (-aqac) v-suff Directional: up from here
-aqocʼ (-aqocʼ) v-suff Directional + Reflexive: out from here, with no cardinal direction meaning
-ay (-ay) v-suff Directional: against, next to, at
-ba (-ba) v-suff Same-Subject Past: the action denoted by the verb has been completed and precedes that of the main verb, and they have the same Agent; after, having done, when, and, because
-bi (-bi) v-suff Inferential: the action of the verb is inferred or deduced to be true either from the logic of the situation or from information acquired later on; best translated must have done or turned out to be
-bina (-bina) v-suff Inferential Subordinative: consists of /-na/ which occurs only with Inferential /-bi/; main clause gives explanation or cause of this verb
-c (-c) v-suff Semelfactive: usually means that the action is done once, but with verbs of motion can also mean start or away
-c (-c) v-suff Terrestrial: the action takes place on the ground or floor
-ccicʼ (-ccicʼ) 1) v-suff Retractive: back with a quick movement 2) v-suff Retractive (with Imperative): forceful way of telling someone to stop doing the reverse of the verb's meaning
-ced (-ʔced) v-suff Defunctive: the action was done by someone now dead
-d (-d) n-kin-suff Subjective in kinship system
-de (-de) n-kin-suff Vocative in kinship system
-do (-do) v-suff Hearsay Evidential: the speaker learned what he is talking about by hearsay only
-e (-e) v-suff Explanatory: forms a subordinate adverbial clause that explains or gives the reason for a command
-e· (-e·) v-suff Non-Final Verb: occurs whenever a main verb which would otherwise end in an Evidential or Modal suffix is not final in the sentence
-el (-el) 1) n-suff Objective: changes verb to noun; employed when the noun clause is an object of the larger sentence or is in an object relation with a locative enclitic 2) v-suff REL.obj 3) adp-suff POSS
-ela (-ela) v-suff Performative Incomplete: the speakers knows that what he is saying is true because he is or was performing the action himself
-em (-em) v-suff Different-Subject Simultaneous: the action denoted by the verb is simultaneous with that of the main verb, but they have different Agents; while, whenever
-em (-em) 1) v-suff Subjective: changes verb to noun; employed when the noun clause is the subject of the larger sentence 2) v-suff REL.subj
-em (-em) -suff Responsive: employed when the utterance is in response to something said by the one(s) spoken to, whether question, statement, or other comment; not used when the utterance is spontaneous or stimulated solely by the action being described
-eti (-eti) v-suff Concessive: although, even though; different Agent from the main verb [?]
-i (-i) v-suff Singular Imperative: spoken directly to one person who will perform the action
-iʔba (-iʔba) v-suff Conditional: would, could
-ibic (-ibic) 1) v-suff Directional: up; neither toward or from here, because what is moving does not become separated from what it has been attached to 2) v-suff Directional: away (with verbs of motion) 3) v-suff Inceptive: begin a voluntary act
-icʼ (-icʼ) v-suff Reflexive: the agent acts on itself, for itself, or on something along with itself
-im (-im) v-suff Formal Imperative: employed in prayers and invocations, and in ordinary situations by the characters in myths; previous generations used this suffix more in their daily life, but this now sounds old-fashioned
-in (-in) v-suff Same-Subject Simultaneous: the action denoted by the verb is simultaneous with that of the main verb, and they have the same Agent; while, whenever, because, by
-inʔna (-inʔna) v-suff Potential: seems to be concerned with a capability of doing an act which may or may not be carried through
-inna (-inna) v-suff Aural evidential: the speaker heard the sounds of the reported action, but did not see it
-insʼ (-insʼ) v-suff Suppositional: variously rendered by I suppose, probably, may, might, could
-iš (-iš) v-suff Optative: expresses the hope or desire of the speaker; the desire is that the speaker himself do that action unless the Causative immediately precedes
-iy (-iy) v-suff Indirect Imperative: said to someone who will not perform the action, so the agent will be either first or third person
-kinʔ (-kinʔ) n-suff man (in proper name or other termf
-kʰe (-ʔkʰe) v-suff Future: commonly expresses future action regardless of whether the agent will do the act on his own initiative or not; may also be a verb complement expressing purpose, or may denote obligation, permission, a request or polite imperative; often employed in giving directions
-l (-l) adv-suff Allative: toward a place
-li (-ʔli) v-suff Different-Subject Past: the action denoted by the verb has been completed and precedes that of the main verb, but they have different Agents; after, having done, when, and, because
-m (-m) 1) v-suff Essive: diverse abstract meanings, often stative 2) v-suff Supraterrestrial: the action takes place in one spot off the ground or floor
-m (-m) v-suff Directional: across, past
-mac (-mac) 1) v-suff Directional: in from here 2) v-suff Directional: south or east from here
-mad (-mad) v-suff Directional: within an enclosed place; at a place identified in the context, enclosed or not
-maduc (-maduc) v-suff Directional: arrive at a place, go as far as a place, arrive home
-maqʷ (-maqʷ) 1) v-suff Directional: in toward here 2) v-suff Directional: south or east toward here; from the north or west
-maqocʼ (-maqocʼ) v-suff Directional + Reflexive: back a little bit (no location or cardinal direction meaning)
-meʔ (-meʔ) 1) v-suff Plural Imperative: spoken directly to two or more people who will perform the action 2) v-suff Respectful Imperative: spoken directly to an in-law who will perform the action
-mela (-mela) v-suff Performative Complete: the speakers knows that what he is saying is true because he performed the action himself
-menʔ (-menʔ) n-kin-suff woman (in proper name or other term)
-meto (-meto) n-suff woman, woman's name
-metoʔna (-metoʔna) 1) n-kin-suff Feminine Locative: where she is 2) n-kin-suff Feminine Locative of Home: at her house, at her place
-mi (-mi) v-suff Remote Past: the action happened long ago (over ten years)
-mucʼ (-mucʼ) v-suff Reciprocal: each other, together, apart
-mul (-mul) v-suff Directional: around in a circle, around an obstruction, turning in a new direction
-mulicʼ (-mulicʼ) v-suff Directional + Reflexive: all the way around and back to the starting point, around in a complete circle
-nati (-nati) 1) v-suff although, even though 2) adv-suff (not) even
-pʰi (-pʰi) v-suff Same-Subject Future: the action denoted by the verb has not taken place but if and when it does, it precedes that of the main verb; and they have the same Agent; when, if, unless
-pʰila (-pʰila) v-suff Different-Subject Future: the action denoted by the verb has not taken place but if and when it does, it precedes that of the main verb; but they have different Agents; when, if, unless
-qa (-qa) v-suff Psych verb with 3rd person subject
-qa (-hqa) 1) v-suff Causative: make or cause another to act 2) v-suff Permissive: let another act
-qa (-qa) v-suff Circumstantial Evidential: the speaker did not see happen what he is tell about but deduced the action from circumstantial evidence; preferred over /-bi/ when the evidence is discovered soon after the action or is incontrovertible
-qacʼ (-qacʼ) v-suff Psych Verb: verb expressing mental state or emotion when the subject is not first-person
-sʼuw (-sʼuw) v-suff Mandatory: that agent is not the person (or thing) at whose will a future act is going to be done; must, have to or simply may, will
-še (-še) v-suff Speculative: the speaker is speculating or theorizing about the action; often translated I wonder
-t (-t) 1) v-suff Verbalizer: derives verbs from nouns 2) v-suff Verbalizer: derives verbs from adjectives
-t (-t) v-suff Plural Act: the object undergoing the action is plural, or the act is performed on the same object more than once
-t (-ht) v-suff Plural Movement: two or more people or things are moving from one place to another
-te (-te) v-suff Performative Intentive: the speaker plans to do that action himself, alone or in association with others
-ti (-ti) 1) v-suff General Intentive: usually a complement to the main verb, referring to purpose in order to 2) v-suff as the main verb it refers to intention or near future intend to, be going to, be about to
-to (-to) n-kin-suff Objective in kinship system
-w (-w) 1) v-suff Absolutive: the citation form for verbs, usually translated as an infinitive; the commonest form for the main verb in a narrative when referring to completed action 2) v-suff Absolutive Noun: translated as infinitive, gerund, suffixed or simple noun 3) v-suff Absolutive Adjective: translation may be past participle, present participle, or some other device
-w (-w) adv-suff Locative: in a place
-w (-w) v-suff Movement: obligatory before Directional suffix if the verb does not otherwise denote movement [?]
-wa (-wa) v-suff Interrogative: always linked systematically to one of the class of interrogative words that occur first in the clause
-wad (-wad) v-suff Distributive: the action occurs in different places or moves in a haphazard manner; usually translated here and there or about
-wi (-wi) v-suff First-person Object: not obligatory; nearly always occurs with a syntactically expressed first-person pronoun object
-ya (-ya) v-suff Visual Evidential: used for perfective or completed actions which the speaker knows to be true because he saw them happen
-yi (-yi) adv-suff times, number of instances
-yi (-yi) n-kin-suff Comitative in kinship system