This section of the documentation focuses on the internal structure of phrases, abstracting away from the grammatical or semantic roles that they play within larger structures, particularly within clauses. These roles are indicated by so-called dash tags and discussed in the section on Grammatical and semantic functions. The internal structure of clauses (IPs and CPs) is also discussed separately.

• The general schema
  • Heads
  • Complements (arguments)
  • Modifiers (adjuncts)
  • Head or dependent?
• Ordinary phrases
  • ADJP
  • ADVP
  • INTJP
  • NP
  • NUMP
  • PP
  • QP
  • VP
• Wh- phrases
  • WADJP
  • WADVP
  • WNP
  • WNUMP
  • WPP
  • WQP
• Special phrases
  • Fragment (FRAG)
  • Quotation (QTP)
  • Unknown status (XX)
• Metalinguistic material
  • CODE
  • ID
  • List item (LS)
  • META

The general schema for phrases consists of a unique head, possibly accompanied by syntactic dependents. Dependents is a cover term for complements (arguments) and modifiers (adjuncts); for more discussion, see Grammatical and semantic functions. Dependents are uniformly labelled as phrases, regardless of how many words they contain. There are very few exceptions, which follow because of other annotation conventions; see Heads for discussion.

( (ADJP (ADVP (ADV very))		← ADVP = pre-head dependent
	(ADJ happy)			← head of ADJP
	(PP (P with)			← PP = post-head dependent
	    (NP (D the)
		(N outcome)))))

( (ADVP (NP-MSR (NUMP (NUM two))	← NP-MSR = pre-head dependent
		(NS years))		
	(ADV ago))) 			← head of ADVP

( (NP (D the)				← head (exceptional sister to N)
      (ADJP (ADJS best))		← ADJP = dependent of N
      (N outcome)))			← head of NP

As mentioned earlier, phrases each have a unique head. It should not, therefore, be possible for two categories from the preceding table to be sisters. This is generally true, but there are a very few exceptions, which follow from the fact that not all POS categories always project phrases in our system. (Recall that our annotation conventions are intended to facilitate searches and do not express a theoretical commitment to the details of a particular structure.) The ramifications are discussed in more detail in the appropriate sections.

• Determiners (D, WD) can be sisters of nouns (N, etc.). (This follows from the fact that we do not implement the DP analysis of noun phrase structure.)
• Determiners (D) can also be sisters of comparatives (ADJR, ADVR, QR) in both full and elided correlative comparatives. (This follows not from the fact that THE cannot (otherwise) function as a phrase in modern English.)
• Particles (RP) are sisters of their associated verb in a particle-verb combination or of the noun in the nominalization of such a combination.
• The aspectual particles A and ASP are always sisters of their associated verb.

( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO He))
	  (VP (BED was)
	      (ADJP-PRD (NP-MSR (NUMP (NUM twenty-one))
				(NS years))
			(ADJ old)))
	  (PUNC ,)))

( (IP-MAT (CONJ and)
	  (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
	  (VP (BED was)
	      (ADJP-PRD (NP-MSR (NUMP (NUM eighteen))
				(NS 0))
			(ADJ 0)))
	  (PUNC .)))

NUMP and QP do not serve as complements of their own, but must be dominated by some type of NP. (Stranded IP-level QP, an apparent exception, is not a complement).

Modifier

At the VP/IP level, modifiers generally bear a dash tag indicating a semantic function. But ADVPs are bare if they are not marked as directional (-DIR), locative (-LOC), or temporal (-TMP) modifiers, and PPs are always unmarked for function.

Modifiers at levels lower than the VP/IP level generally do not bear a dash tag. But measure NPs are always marked as such (-MSR), and adnominal NP modifiers are marked as possessive (-POS) or adverbial (-ADV, -DIR, -LOC, -TMP) in order to avoid confusion about the dependency relations within NP.

Head or dependent?

• The first item is obligatory. Regardless of whether the second item is obligatory or optional, the first item is a head; the second item is its complement.

  ok come from in the house
  *  come from in the house (* on intended reading)
  *  come from in the house
  
  ( (VP (VB come)
        (PP (P from)
  	  (PP (P in)
  	      (NP (D the)
  		  (N house))))))
  
  ok stay in from the rain
  *  stay in from the rain
  ok stay in from the rain
  
  ( (VP (VB stay)
        (PP (RP in)
  	  (PP (P from)
  	      (NP (D the)
  		  (N rain))))))
  

• The first item is optional; the second, obligatory. The first item is a modifier of the second item (whose head is indicated in boldface below).

  ok live up in the house
  ok live up in the house
  *  live up in the house
      
  ( (VP (VB live)
        (PP (PP (RP up))		      ← like this
  	  (P in)
  	  (NP (D the)
  	      (N house)))))
  
  ( (VP (VB live)
        (PP (RP up)		      ← not like this
  	  (PP (P in)
  	      (NP (D the)
  		  (N house))))))
  

• Both items are optional. By default, the first item is annotated as the head; the second item is its modifier. We refer to this as the "first come, first served" rule. Exceptions are possible in connection with specific words (notably, BACK).

  ok go over to the house
  ok go over to the house
  ok go over to the house
  
  ( (VP (VB go)
        (PP (RP over)			← like this
  	  (PP (P to)
  	      (NP (D the)
  		  (N house))))))
  
  ( (VP (VB go)
        (PP (PP (RP over))		← not like this
        	  (P to)	
  	  (NP (D the)
  	      (N bouse)))))
  
  ( (ADVP-TMP (ADV early)			← like this
  	    (PP (P in)
  		(NP (D the)
  		    (N morning)))))
  
  ( (PP (ADVP (ADV early))		← not like this
        (P in)
        (NP (D the)
  	  (N morning))))
  

• When an interjection is modified (in some sense)

  ( (FRAG (INTJ Well)
  	(INTJ hi)
  	(PUNC ,)
  	(ELAB (INTJP (INTJ hi)
  		     (ADVP (ADV there)))
  	      (ADVP (ADV again)))
  	(PUNC .)))
  

• When an expression containing at least one word that is not labelled INTJ is used as an interjection. The material within the INTJP is annotated according to the usual applicable guidelines. See Vocative for whether potential vocatives (DEAR, GOD, and the like) are labelled as NP-VOC or as bare NP daughters of INTJP.

( (QTP (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (N-COMP (NPR Mister) (NPR Long)))
	       (VP (VBD told)
		   (NP-OB2 (PRO me))
		   (IP-INF (TO to)
			   (VP (VB go)
			       (PP (P with)
				   (NP (N-COMP (NPR Emory) (NPR Cook)))))))
	       (PUNC ,)
	       (INTJP (PP (P by)			← BY GOD		
			  (NP (NPR God)))))
       (PUNC ,)))

( (FRAG (INTJ Mmhmm)
	(PUNC ,)
	(INTJ oh)
	(INTJP (NP (N dear)))				← DEAR
	(PUNC .)))


( (FRAG (INTJ Oh)
	(INTJP (ADJP (ADJ good))			← GOOD GRACIOUS
	       (ADJP (ADJ gracious)))
	(PUNC ,)))

( (IP-MAT (INTJ Oh)
	  (INTJP (NP (NP-POS (PRO$ my))))		← MY
	  (PUNC ,)
	  (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
	  (VP (QP (Q all))
	      (DOD did))
	  (PUNC .)))

( (FRAG (INTJP (NP (PRO$ My)
		   (NPR God)))
	(PUNC .)))

( (FRAG (INTJP (NP (PRO$ My)
		   (N goodness)))
	(PUNC .)))

( (FRAG (INTJ Oh)
	(INTJP (NP (NP-POS (PRO$ my))
		   (INTJ gosh)))
	(PUNC .)))

( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D that@))
	  (VP (HVP @'s)
	      (VP (BEN been)
		  (INTJ uh)
		  (CODE {hesitating})
		  (INTJP (WNP (WPRO what)))		← WHAT
		  (PUNC ,)
		  (NP-PRD (NUMP (NUM forty-some))
			  (NS year))))
	  (PUNC ?)
	  (CODE {laughing})))

Otherwise, interjections are annotated as bare INTJ.

( (FRAG (INTJ Well)
	(PUNC ,)
	(INTJ oh)
	(INTJ gaw)
	(PUNC ,)
	(NP (N-COMP (NPR Bob) (NPR Martin)))
	(PUNC .)))

( (IP-MAT (INTJ Goodness)				← honorary INTJ
	  (PUNC ,)
	  (NP-SBJ (D that))
	  (VP (MD must)
	      (VP (HV have)
		  (VP (BEN ben)
		      (ADJP-PRD (ADJ tough)))))
	  (PUNC .)))

( (CP-EXC (INTJ God)					← honorary INTJ
	  (PUNC ,)
	  (WADJP (WADVP (WADV how))
		 (ADJ disappointing))
	  (PUNC .)))

For simplicity, our annotation scheme treats noun phrases as projections of N rather than of D. (Recall that this not imply a theoretical rejection of the DP analysis of noun phrase structure.) D, EX and PRO function as heads of NP in the absence of N.

In general, NP do not dominate other bare NPs, except in connection with conjunction and calendar dates.

( (NP (N water)))

( (NP (NPR Paris)))

( (NP (ADJP (ADJ pretty))
      (NS pictures)

( (NP (NUMP (NUM three))
      (QP (QR more))
      (NS examples)

( (NP (D those)))

( (NP (EX there)))

( (NP (PRO ourselves)))

Because noun phrases are treated as projections of N, prenominal determiners violate our convention that phrases have a unique head (or more precisely, dominate at most one word-level category).

( (NP (D a)
      (ADJP (ADVP (ADV very))
	    (ADJ nice))
      (N room)))

( (NP (D the)
      (N opportunity)
      (PP (P of)
	  (NP (D a)
	      (N lifetime)))))

( (NP (D those)
      (NS books)))

( (NP (D those)
      (NUMP (NUM two))
      (NS books)))

More than with any other phrase type, noun phrases can be headed by a silent nominal head. As mentioned in Known issues, this silent head is not always explicitly indicated, but it informs the annotation. In particular, it prevents other categories (notably, ADJ, NUM, and Q) from serving as heads of NP; rather, when immediately dominated by NP, these categories invariably function as nominal modifiers.

( (NP (D the)
      (ADJP (ADJ rich))))

( (NP (D the)
      (ADJP (ADJ English))))

( (NP (D those)
      (NUMP (NUM two))))

( (NP (QP (Q many))
      (QP (QR more))
      (PP (P of)
          (NP (D that)
	      (N type)))))

Postnominal ADJPs are general annotated as predicates (PRD) of reduced relative clauses (IP-RRC). But postnominal ENOUGH and SUCH are annotated as bare ADJP, since they do not allow an IP-RRC paraphrase.

NUMP

( (NP (NUMP (NUM one))
      (N house)))

( (NP (NUMP (NUM five))
      (NS houses)))
  
( (NP (NUMP (ADVP (ADV about))
	    (NUM five))
      (NS houses)))

( (NP (NUMP (ADVP (ADV around))
	    (NUM ten))
      (NS children)))

( (NP (NUMP (ADVP (ADV probably))
	    (NUM five))
      (NS houses)))

( (NP (NUMP (NUMP (NUM two))
	    (CONJP (CONJ or)
		   (NUMP (ADVP (ADV maybe))
			 (FP even)
			 (NUM three))))
      (NS houses)))

Particles are a subtype of preposition. They are tagged as P or as RP and sometimes fail to project PP.

• Particles are tagged as P when they take a complement (generally NP, but other categories are possible). Otherwise, particles are tagged as RP (for examples, see below).

     
  ( (PP (P in)
        (NP (D the)			← NP complement
  	  (N house))))
  
  ( (FRAG (WNP (WPRO What))
  	(PP (P about)			← ADVP complement
  	    (ADVP (ADVR later)))))
  
  ( (FRAG (WNP (WPRO What))
  	(PP (P about)			← PP complement
  	    (PP (P in)
  		(NP (D the)
  		    (N house))))))
  
  ( (PP (ADVP (ADV right))		← modifier
        (P in)
        (NP (D the)
  	  (N house))))
  

• Bare particles in a particle-verb construction (or the nominalization of such a construction) do not project PP. Everywhere else, they do.

     
  ( (VP (VB give)
        (NP-OB1 (PRO it))
        (RP up)))
  
  ( (VP (VB give)
        (RP up)
        (NP-OB1 (D the)
                (N house))))
  
  ( (PP (P in)
        (NP (QP (Q all))
  	  (NP-POS (PRO$ my))
  	  (N growing)
  	  (RP up))))
  
  ( (VP (VB set)
        (NP-OB1 (PRO it))
        (RP down)))		← bare, without PP
  
  ( (VP (VB set)
        (NP-OB1 (PRO it))
        (PP (ADVP (ADV right))	← modified, with PP
  	  (RP down))))
  

Difficult cases. Sequences involving several adverbs, prepositions, and particles are a prime breeding ground for doubtful cases concerning dependency relations. They are resolved according to the general principles in Head or dependent? The following examples illustrate the principles in action.