Switch reference

The term switch reference is typically used to described systems that indicate whether the subject of a subordinate clause in a sentence is the same as the subject of the main clause. In languages that have a system like this, the sentence she told a joke and she laughed would be marked for whether she is the same in both clauses: (Mary) told a joke and (Mary) laughed, or (Mary) told a joke and (Susan) laughed.

In Kashaya, switch reference seems to depend mainly on whether the agent in each clause is the same, but there is also evidence that what matters (in at least some cases) is whether the two parts of the sentence are thought of by the speaker as being part of the same event, or two different events. Under any interpretation, the notion same versus different remains crucial. In English, clauses like this are translated using words such as when, while, if, because, after, having (done something), or simply and.

Beyond the same / different agent distinction, Kashaya switch reference also depends on several other notions.

• whether the two events occur at the same time (simultaneous or alternating) or one before the other (sequential, also called anterior)
• whether the events are "real" (in the past or present) or "potential" (in the future or conditional)
• whether the events are counter to expectation
• whether the events are known or inferred

The following list shows all the suffixes that Oswalt lists in his 1983 paper. Only the first six were emphasized in his 1961 dissertation as part of the switch reference system, but they all occur in same/different pairings.

The different-agent anterior past suffix is /-u·li/ after /d/, /-ʔli/ after any other consonant, and /-wli/ (eventually /·li/) after a vowel; these forms are closely related to the allomorphy of the absolutive suffix, to which they must be historically related. The suffixes with (w) include that glide when added to a stem ending in a vowel. The forms /-cʰi(la)/ are used optionally when the stem ends in /c/ or /cʼ/, which will then become /·/ or /ʔ/ before the suffix by regular processes.

The last row in the chart gives suffixes that Oswalt (1983: 274) calls "extremely rare"; he reports that they occur three times in his collected texts, but does not identify those examples, and I could not locate them, so none are provided here. As suggested by the meaning, they are derived historically from somewhat irregular combinations of other suffixes in this system: /-bina/ + /-nati/ became /-binati/, and /-bi/ + /-(w)eti/ became /-beti/.

/-in/
Same Agent, Simultaneous or Alternating:

• mu·kinʔ mílhqʰaʔ wa·dun cahnow
• He sang while walking towards there

• men ʔa wá·dun ʔa ya·pálka maʔatá·dadu
• While I was walking along that way, I was nibbling an apple

• bíhše boʔotá·dun ʔáhša boʔotá·dun cohtocí·du mu qʰawáʔla ʔemu
• Heron would go out hunting deer or fishing for fish

• cahno cóʔdoqon mílhqʰaʔ dubíhladuʔ
• Giving a language [to one group], he sent them off [to one place]

• cedú·cedu qali· cuman
• He keeps on saying while sitting up high

• qalilhqʰaʔ cadú·cedun qaʔcʼaʔ qʰale tol
• She cried while looking up into the tree

• maci míʔda cʰahqawa·dun mul bimucí·du malumá·dun
• Every day he snared them, barbecued them, ate them

• naṭa ʔém men kihlaʔ dukúyduku·yin qaʔcʼaʔ
• The child still sobbed and cried.

/-(w)em/
Different Agent, Simultaneous or Alternating:

• ʔul mi· tʼetʰmawém, pʰiʔtʼán cumáʔ moma·duʔ
• As he was standing there, Grey Squirrel ran up to him

• pʰiʔtʼan ti cadem hiba· li cótonʔwadu
• Suddenly, while she was watching, it rose onto its tail

• soh men qʰamá· wa·du buhqʰal em wa·dem
• He just followed while the burden basket was walking along

• bidalhqʰáʔ boʔowem idom ʔahša ʔel ma·caʔ mišécʰqawaʔ ʔahqʰa yó· damqamá·cʼem
• If we went downstream the fish would get our scent as we waded across the water

• mi· cawém daʔtʼaw
• They found him sitting there

• hiʔbaya ʔem natá·du muhṭuṭu cahnowem
• The man mocked the owl hooting

• pʰiʔtʼan baqʼo tʰín qahle daʔtʼaw ʔahqʰa tól side·dem
• Unexpectedly, they detected something white sailing on the water

/-ba/
Same Agent, Anterior past or present:

• milhqʰaʔ cohtócʼba mi· dahali·biʔ
• He went back to that place and started digging there

• qowiʔ pʰabécʼba
• He returned (home), having bandaged himself

• mu ʔcayʔ yacol qaʔcʼáṭʰqaw ʔahqa míhyacʼba
• He made that one cry by winning the contest

• da·bícʰqa· hisʼu· bíʔdiyicʼba
• They set out, having taken their arrows

• tíʔkʰe ʔahca· macʼba mi· šuʔpʼánhcicʼba cumaw
• He went into his house, shut the door, and sat there

• qowícʼba bihšé hcoʔba ʔaca· new
• Having returned, he shot a deer and laid it down at home

• qalí· tʼeti·bicʼba wanʔwadu
• He stood up tall and walked around

• ma·dúcʼba bihše bahnatá·du
• He arrived and asked about the (deer) meat

• mutʼáhqaba maʔaba híhmulʔ co·duʔ
• She cooked (the fish), ate it, and put the leftovers away

• mu miyá·cusʼ yala· qʼoʔdi tʼánʔqa· ma·cal daʔtʼába
• Their uncle was happy at first when he saw them.

• sáhqacʼba cohtoʔ
• Having stopped, he left

• bihše ʔél mi· miṭicʰqaba šahmaw
• They laid the deer there and covered it up

• cʰiʔdiyícʼba cohtoʔ
• He slung (the man) over his shoulder and set out

• cʰiyacʼáhqacʼba tubicʼba mo·biʔ
• Having grown frightened, she arose and ran off

/-ʔli/, /-·li/
Different Agent, Anterior past or present:

• tito macusʼáʔli mul ʔul baʔyaʔ
• When they called him uncle, he understood

• qawi šuhkémciʔli dala·mécʼqaw
• When it had quieted down a little [the Hawk brothers] came down

• pʰacʼoʔli pu·šu ʔem qali· tʼetí·biʔ
• When they speared it, the whale stood straight up

• macíʔli pʰala cóhtoʔ
• When day broke, he went on again

• to cahóhwa cahcíhqaʔli ʔa ʔahca· maʔ
• When they set me down by the front door, I walked into the house

• ku hcóʔli hadu· ʔel ma·caʔ qaneqam
• When he shot one, the others [bears] must have bitten him

• haʔbeṭi tʼeti·bíʔli maʔu ʔul hisʼu· li cuʔdánʔ ma·dal
• When she stood still, they shot her with arrows.

• kulu· wánʔwadu·li mul ʔacaʔ pʰakʼúmʔbiw cóʔbiw
• While he was wandering around in the woods, they had shot him

• mi· ciwóʔli ʔa dacew
• When [deer] tried to crawl out of there [the water], I grabbed it

• mu·kínʔ qʼocí·du·li mul síʔtʼa·láw ʔtʰin
• Whenever he drank, it wasn't enough

• cúhcʰi pʰímacʼiʔ, šahku ṭʰóʔli
• Buzzards arrived, when the leg got rotten

• mul pʰala pʰakʼúmʔ, qʰayhcʰi ʔel, tiyá·col ʔahša haṭʼa· tʼanʔqa·li
• They killed Pelican, since he had been stingy with fish

• kihlaʔ cohtóʔli bahcíl haʔbeṭi waʔli qʰama· wa·du
• Still when she left, when she had gone some distance, [the child] followed

• ʔaca hqowílʔli pʰiʔtʼan mi· ʔaca· má·duʔli ma·dal duhlabaʔ
• Having returned, suddenly, as they arrived home, she fainted

/-pʰi/, /-cʰi/
Same Agent, Anterior future or conditional:

• mito ya mil kuhnu cilícʰqaʔkʰe yá mihyácʰpʰi
• We’ll pay you beads for that if we win

• ʔahša da·qácʼpʰi boʔotácʼmeʔ
• If you want fish, go fishing

• ʔacaʔ qáhle ta·wi da·qaʔcʰi maʔal ʔacaʔ ta·wi hla· da·qacʼmeʔ
• If you like the white man’s ways, like the Indian ways too

• mi· ʔanáhca· macʰpʰi miṭi·cí
• Go in the bedroom and lie down!

• ku·yi weʔe· ʔaca· pʰimá·cʼicʰpʰi maʔyul e· ya šuqʰácʼkʰe
• Only when we arrive way over at the settlement can we sit down

• ʔul sibóyi mihcayí cahnomacʰpʰí ʔdo· mu ma·dúcʼkʰe, muhṭuṭú ʔemu
• If it hoots three or four times, it is said, the hoot owl will come

• maʔal to· mihya ʔel cukʰí·pʰi bilahwal némqapʰi míl mamqapʰi ʔa· ʔahqʰa cúdahqateʔ
• If I stretch out my neck and lay it across from this side to the other and then cause him to walk across it, I can make him float down the river

/-pʰila/, /-cʰila/
Different Agent, Anterior future or conditional:

• qʼoʔdi máce· muʔtʼapʰila yal dú·cicʼqaʔ
• Guard them well and when they [bulbs] are cooked let us know

• yów qahqo ʔa mayal hitʼetʰpʰila dú·cicʼqaʔkʰe
• All right, of course I’ll let you know when they are ready

• mu·kito simáhpʰila ya qʰama tol qahwe· cʰitʼélteʔ
• When he is asleep, let’s smear pitch on his feet

• mi·li diloqóʔcʰila maya ṭʼo heʔen cácʼkʰe tʰin
• When I take you out, you can't see it

• to· pʰakʼúmpʰila qahqo balay é· bilu· ʔiʔkʰe
• If I am killed, it will be made evident by blood in this [deer to fawns, about a basket]

• maya ʔahqʰa códoʔtʰipʰila to cʼiya· ca·bícʼkʰe
• If you don’t bring water, I’ll fly up as a red-tailed hawk

• mi· men šahku šúsʼayʔṭaʔtʰipʰila ṭʼo ʔana· tʼunucí·du
• If you don’t switch [whip] your legs at that place you will get really tired

/-nati/
Same Agent, Counter to expectation:

• cʰiyacʼqáʔnati heʔen mí ʔwa·yi tʼo pʰilebícʼkʰe tʰin
• Even though they were afraid, they could not run away before that

• “yów” hcedu. men tʼánʔqanati
• “All right,” he said, even though he felt like that

• dadáʔyaʔnati heʔen dacéʔkʰe tʰin
• Although she grabbed at them with her paw, she could not catch hold of them

• mil ʔihche dibú·nati kihlaʔ sóh qʼoʔdi khunuʔ thin
• Even when it rained, [the mussels] were still good

/-(w)eti/
Different Agent, Counter to expectation:

• banéqaʔ da·tʰeti pʰiʔkʼowi mohkʰowíye· to
• Although I didn’t want to be hit, I was caught (struck) by the ball

• ʔa· cahno· da·qáʔtʰeti to kihlaʔ to qʼoʔo ʔém cahno· be· cahno tol
• Even though I didn’t want to sing, still the song was singing in my voice box

• ku·yi ʔaná· baṭʰe· pʰilá·cʼiʔ, naṭáyya ṭʼi·, tiyá·col dahsatá·cʼeti
• Once a great many went, all the children, even though they had been warned (not to go to the taboo place)

• miyá·ṭʰe dicʼi·deti tito dasatá·deti ko·ko nihcedem mu ti ṭʼo ʔihmi baʔtʼaqáʔ tʰin šiyiʔ
• Even though his mother told him, even though she warned him, saying it was taboo, he said that he didn’t believe that it was true

• to caʔqá· da·qáʔtʰeti, kihlaʔ mácʼba, pʰiʔkʼuméla
• Although he didn’t want to let me see it, I went in anyway, and examined it completely

• tito ninetánʔqaweti ʔinsʼem, dú·ciʔ tʰin
• Even though he showed them, they didn't understand

/-bina/
Same Agent, Inferred:

• buṭaqá ʔem ma·dúcʼbina mil ʔbakʰe bihše homʔ
• A while after the bear had returned, she roasted some of the meat

• síʔbal hayomʔbina sʼihta cúʔdanʔba men cíhsama·cʼiʔ
• While they were wandering around close in, they shot birds and carried them home

• huʔu· pišudúmqan mito maʔu qaʔcʼaṭʼbina
• Your eyes have apparently become bad from your crying

• mu·kínʔ tʰin pʰiʔtʼaw cila cúmabina
• He didn’t look like the same person, he had been sitting there so long

• muʔbebina hcʰoyícʼbi· miluw
• It turned out that he was dead of asphyxiation

• šulamyé· mu·kito duwe wanʔwánʔbina
• He must have fallen sick from wandering around at night

/-bem/
Different Agent, Inferred:

• sili tol qahwe· cáʔtʼewiye· to mil cumacʼbem
• It must have been when I sat down that gum stuck to my rear

• taqʰma híšamʔ šaqacʼbem wínato· hišá·l
• She must be wearing a taffeta dress; it’s rustling a lot

• šihmi wi coʔbem ʔacacʼ em cʰoyicʼbiw
• He shot him with a gun and the man died

• biʔdu wíhṭʰa nahqabem sipa·cicʼbiw
• They sifted the acorn flour and it got fine

Some sentences include several clauses, with more than one switch reference marker; each is chosen relative to the main verb. Here are examples that combine same and different agent clauses.

• cʰoyíʔli mul ʔul ma·dal doʔqʼoʔdiʔ qómqaba ʔul sá·wana qahle puhṭʰeyáhqaba men nemʔ
• When she died, they prepared her — they bathed her, spread a white sheet over her, and laid her out

• mul hohwa caʔpʼánʔli mi· to· qan pʰilolo·qócʼba pʰilebiʔ
• When she had blocked the door with her body, they went up out from there and ran away

• mu·kito mul ʔqʼo ṭʰoʔo bilíhqaba cʰoyíʔli ʔahca pʰoʔómʔba sóh qʼa·mela
• When he ate that mush [with ground burned bones sprinked on it], he died and I burned the house and just left

• cohqácʼba mo·bíʔli kihláʔ dacew
• When it got shot and [the man] had run off, [the bear] still caught him

• mul tiyá·col maʔa díhqaba cohtoʔli qowíʔli mul weʔe· ʔahqʰamó ṭʼahyalaw
• Having given [the Indians] their food, they left and returned home but [the Indians] threw it in a ditch

• ṭʼi· šameba ʔul mi· wanté·ha wi hco·li ya mul bimuyiʔ
• When I had cut it all up and it was lying in a basin, we ate it

• ʔahqʰa yów ʔbakʰe yacʰma pʰala cʰiyacʼqácʼba maʔa cóʔdoʔ tiya·col hqayíʔtʰeti
• The undersea people were afraid too, and gave them food even though they didn’t ask for it

• baṭʰe· šátʰqacʼ inati kihlaʔ ʔacaʔ choyí·cʼedu ʔihcʰe wi sihcocí·dun
• Even if he wore a lot of clothes, a person would still die if he got drenched in the rain

• ma htalá·meʔtʰipʰila ʔa mi·li kihlaʔ talóhpʰi mito cʰidala·mecʼkʰe ʔeʔ
• If you don’t climb down, I’ll climb up there anyway and drag you down

• mi·li duhṭʰál bahṭʰe qacʰiṭʰpʰila ʔaná· šulam ipʰi hcʰoyí·cʼiʔba qʰamá·tow
• If one should suck a big disease out when [the patient] is really sick, he would die afterwards