Suffix classes |
Kashaya Grammar |
This list compares the classification of verb suffixes in Oswalt's 1961 dissertation with the lexical levels in Buckley's 1994 analysis using more modern phonological theory. It is intended as a guide for readers with more technical interests.
| Section | Heading | Oswalt class |
Buckley level |
Phonemic | Gloss / Label |
| Inner Group |
|||||
| 421 | {d>cʼ} Plural Agent | v1V | 3 | d>cʼ | Plural Agent |
| 422.1 | {-r̂-} Iterative | v2V | 1 | –HCV | Iterative |
| 422.2 | {-R-} Frequentative | v2V | 1 | –CVHCV | Frequentative |
| 423.1 | {-°m-} Supraterrestrial [or Essive] | v3V | 2 | –m | Supraterrestrial, Essive |
| 423.2 | {-°c-} Terrestrial | v3V | 2 | –c | Terrestrial |
| 424.1 | {-c-} Semelfactive | v4V | 2 | –c, –hci, –ic | Semelfactive |
| 424.2 | {-yi°c-} Inceptive | v4V | 2 | –yic | Inceptive |
| 424.3 | {-Xt-} Plural Act | v4V | 2 | –t X ... | Plural Act |
| 424.4 | {-Xh..v-} Plural Movement | v4V | 2 | –h– X | Plural Movement |
| Middle Group |
Directionals | ||||
| 431.01 | {-Xâ°y-} 'against' | v5V | 3 | –ay X | 'against (an object)' |
| 431.02 | {-Xâ°d-} 'along, hither' | v5V | 3 | –ad X | 'along; toward here' |
| 431.03 | (-Xâ°dv̂°c-) 'afar' | v5V | 3 | –adic X | 'to a distance, widely' |
| 431.04 | {-m-} 'across, past' | v5V | 3 | –m | 'across, past' |
| 431.05 | {-mu°l-} 'around' | v5V | 3 | –mul | 'around (an obstacle)' |
| 431.06 | {-ma°d-} 'at' | v5V | 3 | –mad | 'within an enclosure' |
| 431.07 | {-ma°dv̂°c-} 'arrive' | v5V | 3 | –madic | 'arriving somewhere; home' |
| 431.08 | {-ma°c-} 'in hence' | v5V | 3 | –mac | 'in from here' |
| 431.09 | {-ma°q°-} 'in hither' | v5V | 3 | –maqʷ | 'in toward here' |
| 431.1 | {-Xâ°q-} 'out hence' | v5V | 3 | –aq X | 'out from here' |
| 431.11 | {-Xâ°q°-} 'out hither' | v5V | 3 | –aqʷ X | 'out toward here' |
| 431.12 | {-Xâ°qa°c-} 'up hence' | v5V | 3 | –aqac X | 'up from here' |
| 431.13 | {-Xâ°lo°q°-} 'up hither' | v5V | 3 | –aloqʷ X | 'up toward here' |
| 431.14 | {-Xî°bi°c-} 'up' | v5V | 3 | –îbic X | 'up, away' + Inceptive |
| 431.15 | {-Xâ°la°-} 'down' | v5V | 3 | –ala X | 'down' + Inceptive |
| 431.3 | {-w-} Movement | v5Va | 3 | –w | Movement |
| 432.1 | {-°cʼ-} Reflexive | v6V | 3 | –icʼ, –îcʼ, –yicʼ | Reflexive |
| 432.2 | ‖ccicʼ‖ Retractive | v6V | 3 | –ccicʼ | Retractive |
| 432.5 | {-mu°cʼ-} Reciprocal | v6V | 3 | –mucʼ | Reciprocal |
| 433 | {-hqa-} Causative | v7V | 3 | –hqa, –qa | Causative |
| 434 | {-Xa°da°d-} Locomotory | v8V | 3 | –adad(ad) | Locomotory |
| 435 | {-ci°d-} Durative | v9V | 3 | –cid, –ad, –med ... | Durative |
| 437 | {-wa°d-} Distributive | v10V | 3 | –wad | Distributive |
| Outer Group |
|||||
| 441 | {-ʔcěd-} Defunctive | v11V | 4 | –ʔced | Defunctive |
| 442 | {-tʰ-} Negative | v12V | 4 | –tʰ(i) | Negative |
| 443.1 | {-wi-} 'hither' | v13V | 4 | –we, –wi | First person; 'toward here' |
| 443.2 | {-mi-} Remote Past | v13V | 4 | –mi | Remote Past |
| 443.3 | {-bi-} Inferential | v13V | 4 | –bi | Inferential |
| Evidentials | |||||
| 444.11 | {-do} Quotative | v14eV | 5 | –do | Quotative |
| 444.12 | {-v̂nnǎ} Aural | v14eV | 5 | –innǎ | Aural |
| 444.13 | {-qǎ} Circumstantial | v14eV | 5 | –qǎ | Circumstantial |
| 444.14 | {-yǎ} Visual | v14eV | 5 | –yǎ | Visual |
| 444.15 | {-ǎ} Factual | v14eV | 5 | –(w)ǎ | Factual |
| 444.16 | {-mela} Performative Complete | v14eV | 5 | –mela | Performative Complete |
| 444.17 | {-êla} Performative | v14eV | 5 | –(w)ela | Performative |
| Modals | |||||
| 444.21 | {-v̂š} Optative | v14mV | 5 | –iš | Optative |
| 444.22 | {-še} Speculative | v14mV | 5 | –še | Speculative |
| 444.23 | {-v̂nsʼ} Suppositional | v14mV | 5 | –insʼ | Suppositional |
| 444.24 | {-v̂ʔba} Conditional | v14mV | 5 | –iʔba, –iʔbe | Conditional |
| 444.25 | {-v̂nʔna} Potential | v14mV | 5 | –inʔna | Potential |
| Imperatives | |||||
| 444.31 | {-v̂} Singular Imperative | v14iV | 5 | –i | Singular Imperative |
| 444.32 | {-me..ʔ} Plural Imperative | v14iV | 5 | –me =ʔ | Plural Imperative |
| 444.33 | {-v̂m} Formal Imperative | v14iV | 5 | –im | Formal Imperative |
| 444.34 | {-v̂y..ʔ} Indirect Imperative | v14iV | 5 | –iy =ʔ | Indirect Imperative |
| Futures | |||||
| 444.41 | {-te} Performative Intentive | v14fV | 5 | –te | Performative Intentive |
| 444.42 | {-ti} General Intentive | v14fV | 5 | –ti | General Intentive |
| 444.45 | {-sʼuw} Mandatory | v14fV | 5 | –sʼuw | Mandatory |
| 444.46 | {-ʔkʰe} General Future | v14fV | 5 | –ʔkʰe | General Future |
| 444.5 | {-w} Absolutive | v14V | 5 | –w, –u, –ʔ | Absolutive |
| Adverbializers | |||||
| 444.61 | {-v̂n} Simultaneous; Same Agent | v14A | 5 | –in | Same-Subject Simultaneous |
| 444.62 | {-êm} Simultaneous; Different Agent | v14A | 5 | –(w)em | Different-Subject Simultaneous |
| 444.63 | {-ba} Subordinate Act precedes Main Act; Same Agent | v14A | 5 | –ba | Same-Subject Sequential |
| 444.64 | {-ʔli} Subordinate Act precedes Main Act; Different Agent | v14A | 5 | –ʔli, –wli | Different-Subject Sequential |
| 444.65 | {-pʰi} Subordinate Act will precede Main Act; Same Agent | v14A | 5 | –pʰi, –cʰi | Same-Subject Future Sequential |
| 444.66 | {-pʰila} Subordinate Act will precede Main Act; Different Agent | v14A | 5 | –pʰila, –cʰila | Different-Subject Future Sequential |
| 444.67 | {-êti} 'although' | v14A | 5 | –(w)eti | Concessive |
| 444.68 | {-na} 'because' | v14A | 5 | –na | Same-Subject Inferential |
| 445.11 | {-e·} Nonfinal Verb | v15V | 5 | –e· | Nonfinal Verb |
| 445.12 | {-êm..ˇ} Responsive | v15V | 5 | –em ˇ | Responsive |
| 445.13 | {-wa..ˇ} Interrogative | v15V | 5 | –wa ˇ | Interrogative |
| 445.2 | {-ê-} Nominalizer | v15N | 5 | –e | Nominalizer |
| 445.3 | {-ê} Explanatory | v15B | 5 | –e | Explanatory |
Buckley 1994 originally proposed five "lexical levels" based on phonological patterns such as Iambic lengthening. In a simpler conception, levels 1–3 can be considered Stem-level, and levels 4–5 are Word-level.
Oswalt 1961 has a complicated classification of all affixes, depending on where they occur in the overall word. The first letter identifies what kind of STEM the affix attaches to; usually this is v for verb. The number gives the position in the word, from 1 to 15. Class 14 is a special category: every verb must contain exactly one suffix from this group.
The last letters identify what kind of word results from the morphological operation.