Instrumental prefixes |
Kashaya Grammar |
Kashaya has twenty instrumental prefixes that form part of the largest class of verbs in the language. They are added to instrumental roots, which generally cannot occur without one of the prefixes. One of them, ša-, is uncommon, but the majority of roots can occur with any of the remaining nineteen prefixes. The other roots are found with a smaller number, sometimes only a few (or even just one). An additional, unpronounced suffix Ø– is used with a limited set of roots when no specific agent or instrument is specified.
For most of the prefixes below, examples are given with three roots to illustrate how the meanings combine: the roots are /hcʰa/ "knock over, fall over"; /ʔtʼa/ "seem, feel, detect; experience"; and /ʔdi/ "hold, put, move, carry (a heavy object)." Further examples show other roots, emphasizing the more common verbs that use each prefix. As can be seen in several sentences, often an action and its result are described with the same prefix, since they both reflect the same event.
Click on a prefix to jump to that part of the page.
ba- bi- ca- cu- cʰi- da- di- du- ha- hi- ma- mi- mu- pʰa- pʰi- pʰu- qa- si- ša- šu- Ø-
Acting with the mouth (of human beings), with the snout (of animals), with the beak (of birds). The meaning includes both the organ that produces speech, the mouth, and the organ that detects speech, the ear; thus the translation is often best given by an English verb expressing speaking (and singing) or hearing.
| bahcʰaw | "to knock over (with the mouth or snout)" |
| baʔtʼaw | "to sound (in reference to speech or singing)" |
| bade·du | "to push with the snout; to direct someone (to move around by speaking)" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of ba- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting by encircling softly. It often means with both arms (wrapped around something), by sewing (perhaps because the thread entwines the cloth), by eating (especially using a spoon, which the lips encircle, but also more generally).
| bihcʰaw | "to throw someone in wrestling" |
| biʔtʼaw | "to catch up with, to reach, to be almost ready; not necessarily with any encircling movement involved" |
| bide·du | "to carry in both arms" |
The word bimuci·du "to eat" contains this prefix as well. Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of bi- verbs in the online dictionary.
This prefix has two unrelated meanings: (1) with the rear end, with a massive or bulky object, by sitting; and (2) with a knife, by cutting.
| cahcʰaw | "to knock over backing up" |
| caʔtʼaw | "to feel (by sitting on)" |
| cade·du | "to push along backing up (either with with one’s own body or with a machine such as a car)" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of ca- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting with a rounded object, whether with an instrument or any rounded projection of the body such as the head, elbow, knee, nose, or chin; by the force or movement of flowing water, by shooting; with the front end (of a car or other vehicle). Pronounced co– if the next syllable contains /o/.
| cuhcʰaw | "to knock over with a rounded object (such as butting with the head or hitting with the knee); to be knocked over by flowing water; to shoot over; to be pushed over by the front end (of a bulldozer, etc.)" |
| cuʔtʼaw | "to feel (via a rounded object, etc.)" |
| cude·du | "to float along, to be pushed along by the front end (of a bulldozer, etc.)" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of cu- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting while holding a small or constricted part of a larger object, most often by a tool or instrument that has a handle. Pronounced ci– in a deaspiration context.
| cihcʰaw | "to knock over with something dragged past (as with a bush pulled by one branch)" |
| cʰiʔtʼaw | "to feel (when holding by a handle)" |
| cʰide·du | "to carry or drag something by a handle, to lead someone by the hand; commonly, with no further context, to carry in a sack held by the neck and slung over the shoulder" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of cʰi- verbs in the online dictionary.
The basic meaning of this common prefix is by acting with the hand, especially the palm or the paw of animals, but also refers with some verbs to the movement of waves. Sometimes a verb with this prefix has taken on more general, abstract meanings.
| dahcʰaw | "to push over with the hand or paw, to be knocked over by waves" |
| daʔtʼaw | "to feel with the hand; but the commonest meaning is to find (by any means, not just with the hand)" |
| dade·du | "to push along with the hand or paw, to carry in the palm of the hand or with the fingers opposed to the palm" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of da- verbs in the online dictionary.
Through the effect of gravity, therefore by falling, or from a heavy weight placed on top of something.
| dihcʰaw | "to be knocked over by a falling object" |
| diʔtʼaw | "to feel (weight, by lifting)" |
| dide·du | "to fall along a path" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of di- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting with the finger, rather than the palm or the entire hand (compare da-). This prefix can also lead to more abstract meanings, such as dutʼat- "to work". Pronounced do– if the next syllable contains /o/.
| duhcʰaw | "to push over with a finger" |
| duʔtʼaw | "to feel with a finger" |
| dude·du | "to push along with a finger, to carry with the fingers opposed to the thumb" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of du- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting with a swinging motion, often the legs kicking but also by swinging the arms or throwing.
| hahcʰaw | "to kick over, to knock over by swinging (a bat or club)" |
| haʔtʼaw | "to feel (the feet, by swinging)" |
| haʔdimʔ | "to kick (a ball) across" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of ha- verbs in the online dictionary.
Involving the body or an object as a whole, or the movement of the body. This can involve any of the parts of the body specified by other prefixes if the action is due to overall motion of the body and not to a purposeful act of the individual part.
| hihcʰaw | "to knock over while moving; could be used if a person walked by and brushed against a vase with the hand and knocked it over" |
| hiʔtʼaw | "to feel (on the body), as when wearing clothing or lying on a surface or object" |
| hide·du | "to push along with the body or shoulder" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of hi- verbs in the online dictionary.
Acting with the sole of the foot, with the foot or claws of a bird, with the butt of the hand. Includes stepping on something, as well as walking and dancing. Use mi– for the tip of the foot, or ha– for kicking with the foot.
| mahcʰaw | "to push over with the bottom of the foot" |
| maʔtʼaw | "to feel (by stepping on)" |
| made·du | "to carry (as a hawk would a fish in its claws)" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of ma- verbs in the online dictionary.
With a small projection near the end of a long object, such as with the toes, by kicking (more gently than with ha–); with the nose or by smelling; extended meanings are by counting or by reading.
| mihcʰaw | "to kick over, to knock over with the toes" |
| miʔtʼaw | "to feel with the toes" |
| mide·du | "to kick along with the toes" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of mi- verbs in the online dictionary.
With heat or energy of various kinds: by a quick movement or throwing something fast, by heat or cooking, with light, or more abstractly with the mind or emotions. Pronounced mo– if the next syllable contains /o/.
| muhcʰaw | "to knock over by running into or throwing something at" |
| muʔtʼaw | "to be cooked" |
| muʔdiʔ | "to hit with a thrown object or by running into so as to cause to move" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of mu- verbs in the online dictionary.
By poking or hitting with the end of a long object such as a pole; with the fist since it is at the end of the arm (da- and du- are not used for actions of the closed hand); by wrapping (in cloth). Pronounced pa– in a deaspiration context.
| pahcʰaw | "to poke and knock over" |
| pʰaʔtʼaw | "to feel by poking" |
| pʰaʔdiʔ | "to poke so as to move; to push along with a stick" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of pʰa- verbs in the online dictionary.
By touching or hitting with the side of a long object such as a stick, or a tool such as an axe or hammer. Metaphorically, often applied to seeing or appearance. Pronounced pi– in a deaspiration context.
| pihcʰaw | "to knock over with the side of a long object" |
| pʰiʔtʼaw | "to look, to seem, to appear; more rarely, to feel with the side of a long object" |
| pʰide·duʔ | "to see someone off (as at a train station); to bat (a ball) off to a distance" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of pʰi- verbs in the online dictionary.
By moving air: blowing by an individual, or by the wind. Pronounced pu– in a deaspiration context, and pʰo– or po– if the next syllable contains /o/.
| puhcʰaw | "to blow over" |
| pʰuʔtʼaw | "to feel (of the wind, by blowing)" |
| pʰude·du | "to be blown along by the wind" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of pʰu- verbs in the online dictionary.
Between two strongly opposed forces, especially the teeth or jaws. The most common translations are with the teeth, by biting, by chewing, by eating (chewed food, as contrasted with bi- for soft foods and si- for liquids.
| qahcʰaw | "to pull over with the teeth (as a dog might do)" |
| qaʔtʼaw | "to taste (by chewing)" |
| qade·biʔ | "to pick up in the teeth" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of qa- verbs in the online dictionary.
By the chemical and physical properties of water, rather than because it is flowing (use cu- for this), or because of wave action (indicated by da-). The meaning includes by wetting, dissolving, slipping (because of the slickness of wet objects), floating (because of water’s buoyancy, not because it is flowing), by rain, and by many actions of the tongue such as licking, drinking, sucking, or (less obviously) whispering.
| sihcʰaw | "to knock over with the tongue, to be knocked over by the rain" |
| siʔtʼaw | "to taste (only of liquids)" |
| side·du | "to be floating, or sailing in a boat (the movement of the boat must be because of a motor or sail, not because the water is flowing)" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of si- verbs in the online dictionary.
By a long object moving lengthwise, or with a mesh or net. This prefix can have sexual connotations and is often avoided. These two verbs illustrate the basic meanings.
| šahmulʔ | "to leave some (food) behind, when inserting a ladle into a pot" |
| šaʔkʼoyʔ | "to catch scattered objects with a net" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of ša- verbs in the online dictionary.
By pulling alone, or by alternately pushing and pulling, with a long flexible object such as a rope. Pronounced šo– if the next syllable contains /o/.
| šuhcʰaw | "to pull over, to upset (by pulling a rug out from under), to knock over with a twirled rope" |
| šuʔtʼaw | "to feel (when pulling with a rope, etc.)" |
| šude·du | "to pull along, to lead" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of šu- verbs in the online dictionary.
This null or "zero" prefix has no pronunciation; it occurs with a relatively small number of roots, about two dozen. It means "with no specified agent" and is frequently, but not always, best translated as a passive or as an intransitive verb.
| cʰaw | "to fall over" |
| tʼa·du | "to feel, to think" |
| de·du | "to follow along a trail" |
Examples of verbs in context:
See a full list of Ø- verbs in the online dictionary.